Co-Parenting Strategies That Reduce Conflict

Abstract

Background: Rising rates of divorce and separation have made effective co-parenting a public health priority. Chronic interparental conflict harms children’s mental, emotional, and physical well-being[1][2]. In many African contexts, communal childrearing traditions and evolving legal frameworks (e.g. South Africa’s Children’s Act) shape post-separation parenting. This secondary research reviews how co-parents can reduce conflict in post-divorce or separation settings, drawing on African and international studies.

Methods: We conducted a narrative review of peer-reviewed articles, dissertations, and policy documents (2010–2025) on co-parenting and conflict resolution after separation, with emphasis on sub-Saharan Africa. Sources included African social work and legal journals, public health databases (e.g. PubMed), and reports. We extracted psychological, social, cultural, and health-related findings, and synthesized recommended conflict-reduction strategies relevant to parents, clinicians, and policymakers.

Findings: High-conflict co-parenting is linked to worse child outcomes – including anxiety, depression, conduct problems and lower academic performance[1][3] – whereas cooperative co-parenting (characterized by communication, mutual respect and consistency) promotes resilience[3][4]. In African settings, extended-family and community support often buffer children from parental discord[5][6]. Key strategies to reduce conflict include clear parenting plans, respectful communication, and use of mediation or parenting coordinators. Structured tools such as co-parenting apps and formal parenting plans provide consistency[7][8]. Parenting education and counseling can shift parents’ focus toward child-centered goals[9][10]. Legal frameworks that reinforce joint parental responsibility (e.g. custody arrangements, mandatory mediation) are also important public health measures[11][12].

Conclusion: Conflict-reducing co-parenting requires a multi-dimensional approach: psychologically-informed communication strategies, supportive social networks, and culturally sensitive practices. For example, involving extended relatives in parenting (common in African cultures) can distribute caregiving and ease conflict[5][6]. Actionable recommendations include developing detailed custody plans, engaging in mediation, and providing co-parenting skills training. Policymakers should strengthen family laws and community programs to support separated parents. By prioritizing children’s needs and co-parent cooperation, these strategies align with a public health goal of safeguarding child development across diverse cultural contexts[10][12].

Keywords: Co-parenting; Conflict reduction; Divorce; Separation; Child well-being; Africa; Public health

Article Type: Secondary Research

Introduction

Divorce and separation are common worldwide and increasingly recognized as public health issues due to their impact on families and children[1][2]. In sub-Saharan Africa, divorce prevalence varies widely (e.g. <10% of unions in Mali vs. >40% in Congo[13]), but wherever it occurs, children often face significant challenges. Studies show that children of divorced parents in Africa have poorer health and developmental outcomes compared to peers with married parents[2]. Much of this harm is mediated by parental conflict: exposure to ongoing dispute threatens children’s mental health (increasing anxiety, depression, behavior problems) and school success[1][3]. Conversely, supportive co-parenting can buffer these effects. For instance, an intervention in U.S. African-American families found that reducing parental arguments improved children’s mood and behavior[14].

In African cultural contexts, extended family and community often participate in childrearing. Traditional African societies “uphold communal caregiving and strong extended family networks” as core values, which can mitigate the effects of parental separation[5][6]. Modern laws increasingly reflect these values: e.g. South Africa’s Children’s Act (2005) affirms that “both parents have responsibilities and rights” to ensure children’s interests[11]. Parenting plans (formal agreements on custody, support, routines) are endorsed by family courts to provide stability[7][11]. However, many parents struggle to implement such plans due to poor communication or limited support. It is therefore essential to identify practical co-parenting strategies that reduce conflict and promote child well-being in both African and global settings.

This paper synthesizes literature on post-separation co-parenting. We focus on psychological (e.g. emotional health), social (e.g. support networks), cultural (e.g. extended kinship), and health-related (e.g. child development) aspects of conflict reduction. Our target audiences are separated parents (for actionable guidance) and therapists/policymakers (for broader strategies). We include recent data and examples from Africa to ensure local relevance, while also drawing on international evidence. The goal is to outline evidence-based practices for co-parents, along with implications for clinical and policy interventions.

Literature Review

Effects of Co-Parenting Conflict on Children and Families

A large body of research documents that parental conflict after separation is a key risk factor for children’s adjustment problems. D’Onofrio and Emery (2019) review global studies showing that children of divorced/separated parents are at 1.5–2 times higher risk of academic difficulties, conduct disorders, and depressive symptoms[1]. Importantly, these effects are not inevitable; much depends on parenting. In their review, lower parental conflict and consistent co-parenting were associated with better child outcomes[15][16]. Meta-analyses confirm that cooperative co-parenting (cooperation, support, agreement) is modestly but significantly linked to fewer child behavioral and emotional problems, whereas hostile or triangulating co-parenting strongly predicts children’s externalizing issues[17][16].

African studies, though fewer, echo these findings. A Nigerian study found that high-quality co-parenting among divorced couples positively correlated with children’s emotional adjustment and school performance[3]. Conversely, a South African qualitative study of custodial mothers reported that strained communication and lack of father involvement compounded maternal stress and negatively impacted children[18]. These mothers recommended parent education, family therapy, and mediation to address these challenges[18]. Across sub-Saharan Africa, research using Demographic Health Surveys indicates that children of divorced mothers have worse physical health (higher morbidity and mortality) than peers of married mothers[2]. In regions where divorce is rare, this health disadvantage is especially pronounced[19][2], suggesting that stigma and lack of support amplify conflict’s harms.

Interparental conflict also affects parents’ own well-being, creating a feedback loop. Stress, depression or economic struggles can undermine consistent parenting, while high-conflict parenting increases stress[15]. For example, single custodial mothers in South Africa often bear heavy economic and emotional burdens post-divorce, and conflict with ex-partners exacerbates these challenges[18][7]. Children exposed to high levels of conflict may blame themselves or feel caught in loyalty struggles[20][21]. Thus, reducing conflict is critical not only for child health but for entire family resilience.

Protective Factors and Positive Co-Parenting

The flip side of conflict is cooperative co-parenting, which can be conceptualized as a protective factor for families. Positive co-parenting is characterized by mutual respect, effective communication, and coordinated decision-making[22][4]. As Zondi and Kgadima (2024) note, “positive co-parenting…involves mutual respect, consistency, coordination and agreement”[22]. International research finds that children in cooperative co-parenting arrangements tend to have better social skills, academic success, and emotional well-being[16]. For example, McHale et al. (1996, 1999) report that supportive parenting by separated parents leads to enhanced social and academic competence in early childhood[16].

In African contexts, extended families and community norms can bolster cooperative parenting. Okorn & Ojong (2024) observed in Nigerian communities that involving extended relatives and community support networks helped mitigate divorce’s negative effects: children in such environments showed better emotional adjustment and less behavior problems[3]. Similarly, traditional child-rearing patterns in many African cultures already include relatives and communal caregivers, diffusing the responsibilities of a single parent[6]. These communal values can be leveraged in co-parenting; for instance, grandparents or aunts may facilitate communication or even host family counseling sessions. Thus, a culturally sensitive view of co-parenting includes not only the nuclear parents but the broader kinship network[6].

Legal and educational interventions also promote cooperative co-parenting. Laws that prioritize “best interests of the child” often encourage joint decision-making by parents. For example, South Africa’s Children’s Act requires both parents to participate in parenting plans[11]. Enforcing such laws can nudge parents toward collaboration. Parental education programs – sometimes mandated by courts – have shown promise. Meta-analyses suggest that structured parenting support and education programs (e.g. curriculum on conflict resolution) reduce children’s psychological symptoms by improving parenting skills[23]. Mediation and counseling are other forms of preventive intervention that can shift adversarial attitudes. As noted in World Psychiatry, mediators “potentially benefit children by lowering conflict, improving parenting, and encouraging both parents to remain active” in their children’s lives[12].

Cultural and Social Considerations

Cultural norms deeply influence co-parenting. In many Western countries, nuclear-family co-parenting models are assumed, but African societies often have collective child-rearing traditions[6]. Researchers caution that Western research may not fully capture these dynamics: just as Asian studies find grandparents and extended family heavily involved in co-parenting[24], African families may share responsibilities in informal ways. For example, in polygynous families or communities with high kin cohesion, a child might live primarily with one parent but spend significant time with other relatives on the other parent’s side. Such arrangements can either reduce conflict (if coordinated well) or mask conflict (if communication is poor).

Religion, gender roles, and social stigma also matter. In some African settings, divorced women may face economic hardship and social exclusion[18]. Men’s involvement in childrearing may also be influenced by changing norms; efforts to enhance paternal engagement (fathers’ support groups, legal awareness) can improve co-parent cooperation. Social networks – including neighbors, religious groups or workplace support – can provide practical help (e.g. childcare) and emotional support to separated parents, indirectly reducing stress-induced conflict. Finally, socio-economic factors like poverty and housing instability can worsen post-divorce stress and conflict. Public health approaches that address these underlying stressors (e.g. cash transfers, mental health services) are part of the broader context for co-parenting.

Conflict-Reduction Interventions

A key question is which strategies effectively reduce co-parenting conflict. Several intervention types have been studied internationally:

• Mediation and Parenting Coordination: These are structured processes led by trained professionals. As De Jong (2022) describes, parenting coordination (court-sanctioned facilitators) and mediation programs aim first to help parents negotiate agreements, and if needed make binding decisions to reduce disputes[25]. In South Africa, specialized parenting coordinators have been introduced for high-conflict cases to limit litigation and focus on child-centered solutions[25]. Similarly, community mediation services (often free or low-cost) help parents resolve custody schedules and communication issues. Research indicates that mediation can significantly lower parental arguments and improve child adjustment outcomes[12][14].
• Parenting Plans and Legal Agreements: Formal parenting plans (detailed schedules and rules signed by parents and/or courts) provide clarity and predictability. According to van Jaarsveld (2018), a well-constructed plan “assists parents in making correct choices for their children and fosters relationships…providing structure, eliminating conflict and protecting all members”[7]. Even when parents disagree, having a mediator or lawyer draft a parenting plan ensures that key issues (custody, visitation, finances, education, religious upbringing, etc.) are explicitly addressed. In practice, judges in many African countries increasingly require parenting plans before granting divorce, reflecting a policy emphasis on stability[11][7].
• Communication Skills and Parenting Programs: Evidence-based programs that teach co-parents how to communicate respectfully and solve problems can reduce hostility. For example, “OurRelationship” is an online program that showed decreases in co-parent conflict and subsequent improvements in children’s internalizing/externalizing symptoms[14][26]. Similarly, therapists use techniques (e.g. setting co-parenting agendas, active listening training) to help couples shift from angry exchanges to child-focused planning. Parents learn to keep children out of arguments and use neutral language about each other. Empirical reviews emphasize the “spillover” effect: better couple functioning (less marital discord) tends to improve co-parenting and vice versa[27].
• Use of Technology and Scheduling Tools: Recent decades have seen co-parenting apps and online platforms (e.g. shared calendars, messaging apps) designed for separated parents. These tools facilitate scheduling (school pickups, holidays) and provide a text record of agreements, thereby reducing misunderstandings. Daniel and Madugu (2024) note the emergence of “online resources, co-parenting apps, and professional mediation services” to facilitate effective co-parenting[8]. While these technologies originated in the West, their use is spreading globally. Even a simple shared smartphone calendar can help avoid “he-said she-said” disputes. By structuring communication, these tools serve as conflict buffers.

In sum, research suggests a multi-pronged approach: legal structures (plans, court orders), professional support (mediation, therapy), and personal skills (communication, child-focused parenting) all contribute to lowering co-parent conflict. The most effective strategies are those that engage both parents in a cooperative mindset and provide external scaffolding (plans or coordinators) when needed.

Methodology

This article is a narrative secondary research review. We searched electronic databases (e.g. PubMed, Google Scholar, JSTOR) for literature from 2010–2025 on “co-parenting”, “coparenting conflict”, “divorce”, and “child outcomes”, emphasizing African studies. Key sources included peer-reviewed journals (law, psychology, public health, social work), doctoral theses, and reports. We specifically sought studies from Africa or about African-descent populations, as well as relevant international reviews. Search terms included combinations like “coparenting strategies Africa”, “parenting coordination South Africa”, “divorce child mental health Africa”, and similar.

Inclusion criteria were: (1) studies on post-separation parenting (divorce or separation); (2) discussion of conflict, cooperation, or related interventions; (3) data on child/family outcomes or suggested practices; (4) publication from 2010 onward. We excluded studies focusing solely on intact families or pre-divorce conflict. From each source, we extracted information on conflict sources, co-parenting dynamics, cultural context, and recommended strategies. We synthesized findings thematically under psychological, social/cultural, and health perspectives. Throughout, we prioritized studies with empirical data or well-grounded theoretical frameworks. Key African sources were Zondi & Kgadima (2024), Okorn & Ojong (2024), Daniel & Madugu (2024), and van Jaarsveld (2018), supplemented by global analyses (e.g. D’Onofrio & Emery, 2019; Smith-Greenaway & Clark, 2017). Citations include DOIs and URLs to ensure retrievability.

Findings and Discussion

Psychological Factors and Parenting Quality

Parental conflict acts through several psychological mechanisms to affect children. When divorced parents argue frequently, children may experience chronic stress, loss of trust in parental care, and anxiety about stability[1][21]. They often internalize blame (“Is it my fault?”) or become loyalties-conflicted, leading to depression or acting out. Conversely, low-conflict co-parenting provides emotional security. Studies highlight that the quality of the co-parenting relationship – the degree of cooperation vs. conflict – is a strong predictor of child adjustment[16][15]. For example, cooperative co-parenting characterized by warmth and consistency has been linked to better self-regulation and fewer behavior problems[16], whereas “discordant co-parenting” (competition/conflict) predicts child difficulties[16].

Parents’ own psychological states matter too. High conflict can exacerbate maternal or paternal depression, which in turn undermines parenting consistency. Interventions that improve parents’ emotional coping (e.g. stress management, therapy) can indirectly reduce conflictual interactions. The literature suggests that even after separation, if parents feel heard and supported (e.g. via counseling), they are more likely to communicate calmly about the child. D’Onofrio & Emery (2019) note that risk factors such as less effective parenting and economic stress often follow divorce, but that conflict is the most direct mediator of child mental health outcomes[15]. Therefore, co-parenting strategies frequently emphasize enhancing parents’ confidence and skills as caregivers, thereby improving the overall family emotional climate.

Social and Environmental Context

The social environment can either amplify or mitigate co-parenting conflict. Socioeconomic stress is a major factor: job loss, housing instability, or poverty after divorce can heighten tensions between parents. In many African countries where social welfare is limited, divorced mothers may struggle financially, increasing the likelihood of conflict over child support. Public health data (e.g. Demographic and Health Surveys) indicate that in regions where divorce is uncommon, the social stigma and lack of institutional support make post-divorce life harder, worsening children’s health outcomes[2][19].

By contrast, strong social supports reduce conflict spillover. Extended families often play protective roles: grandparents or uncles may look after children when parents argue, giving parents space to cool off. Community networks (church groups, women’s associations) can provide emotional or practical aid. Okorn & Ojong (2024) highlight that in Nigerian villages, “community support networks and extended family involvement…play a significant role in mitigating the negative effects of divorce on child development”[5]. This suggests that conflict is not solely an interpersonal issue but a social one; interventions can involve community education and engagement, not just the nuclear family.

It is also important to consider how culture shapes expectations. For example, in some African societies, male identity is tied to financial provision rather than daily childcare. If a father is non-resident, he may nonetheless feel responsible (or not) in complex ways, affecting how parents negotiate involvement. Collaborative co-parenting may require challenging traditional gender norms (encouraging fathers to share parenting tasks) and addressing mothers’ concerns (e.g. fear of financial abandonment). Successful programs often engage both parents’ social milieu – for instance, involving religious leaders to endorse co-parent harmony or using peer support groups.

Cultural Dimensions

While cooperative co-parenting is a universal ideal, its expression varies culturally. In Western contexts, models often focus on the two parents only, whereas in many African cultures, childrearing is a communal endeavor. This can be advantageous: a child’s identity is embedded in a larger kin network, reducing the impact of a single parent’s absence. Researchers of Asian and African families note that involving grandparents and other relatives can profoundly impact child outcomes[24]. Thus, conflict-reduction strategies may include culturally adapted elements such as family-group conferences (where elders help mediate) or encouraging co-parent visits in the presence of extended family who can model respectful behavior.

However, cultural norms can also hide conflict. For example, if divorce is rare in a community, overt conflict might be repressed or expressed indirectly, which can confuse children. In some contexts, mothers may feel social pressure to avoid openly criticizing fathers, even when conflict is high, which might lead to passive-aggressive communication. Therapists working in African settings emphasize culturally sensitive communication training: for instance, teaching parents to use respectful traditional phrases or proverbs when discussing difficult topics, so as to reduce face-threatening conflict.

Health-Related Aspects

From a public health standpoint, co-parenting conflict has been linked not only to psychological but also to physical health outcomes for children. The systematic study by Smith-Greenaway & Clark (2017) found that parental divorce in sub-Saharan Africa is associated with higher rates of childhood illness and mortality[2]. This underscores that conflict and instability may lead to poorer nutrition, decreased healthcare access, or riskier environments. For example, when parents are feuding, they may be less coordinated about immunizations or school attendance, or a parent may move the child to a less healthy living situation.

Reducing conflict can therefore be viewed as a preventive health measure. Interventions that ensure both parents remain involved in healthcare decisions (e.g. requiring consent from both in custody agreements) help maintain continuity of care. Regular medical check-ups and school health programs can also be opportunities to support co-parenting: schools might provide resources (pamphlets, referrals) about co-parenting support groups, framing it as beneficial for the child’s health. Additionally, mental health of parents (often overlooked in low-resource settings) is critical; parental depression or trauma symptoms impair conflict resolution. Integrating mental health screening and counseling for separated parents into primary care or HIV programs (for example) could indirectly improve co-parenting quality.

Summary of Evidence on Strategies

Across studies, several core strategies emerge as effective for reducing co-parent conflict:

• Child-Centered Communication: Always prioritize the child’s needs. Avoid hostile language about the other parent in front of the children[10][21]. Parents who frame discussions around “What is best for our child?” (rather than “who is right”) tend to reach agreements more easily. Many studies recommend active listening and regular check-ins between parents, using neutral communication channels.
• Structured Planning: Develop a detailed, written parenting plan. As a roadmap, it covers custody, schedules (weekdays/weekends/holidays), decision-making roles, and conflict-resolution procedures[7][25]. This reduces ambiguity that often sparks disputes. Plans should be revisited as children grow (e.g. a plan for infants will need updates by adolescence). In South Africa, professionals emphasize involving all relevant family members when drafting plans[7].
• Professional Support: Seek mediation or co-parenting counseling early. Neutral third parties can defuse power struggles. For high-conflict cases, court-appointed parenting coordinators (as in South Africa) or family therapists can impose structure and educate parents[25][12]. Even brief interventions (e.g. a 6-hour co-parenting workshop) have been shown to significantly reduce conflict behaviors[14][12].
• Skill-Building Programs: Parents benefit from learning specific conflict-management skills: staying calm, setting boundaries, and using problem-solving techniques. Programs based on family systems or attachment theory emphasize empathy exercises (seeing from the other parent’s perspective) and stress management. Daniel & Madugu (2024) recommend tailored interventions that “enhance co-parenting skills, reduce conflict, and empower parents to collaboratively nurture their children’s development”[28].
• Leveraging Technology: Utilize tools like co-parenting apps, shared online calendars, or even a dedicated email account for parenting matters. These create a record of exchanges and reduce the need for tense face-to-face negotiation. Friedrich and Fisher (2017) discuss how such “structured platforms for scheduling, communication, and conflict resolution” help parents manage shared responsibilities[8]. Even in settings with limited smartphone access, basic texting or messaging can serve a similar function.

Recommendations

Based on the evidence, we offer practical recommendations for different stakeholders:

• For Parents:
• Develop a Parenting Plan: Work together (or with a mediator) to create a written schedule and decision-making agreement covering living arrangements, education, healthcare, and holidays[7]. Update it as children’s needs change.
• Communicate Respectfully: Use calm, solution-focused language. Avoid criticizing the other parent to your children. If feelings run high, consider written communication (email/text) or a shared app to minimize face-to-face conflicts[10][8].
• Focus on Consistency: Strive for consistent rules and routines across households (bedtimes, discipline, schooling). Children cope better when they know what to expect[22][4].
• Seek Support Early: Don’t wait until conflict spirals. Attend co-parenting counseling or mediation to learn conflict-resolution skills. If one parent resists, the other should still consider counseling for themselves (parent support groups can help).

• Involve Extended Family: Encourage grandparents, aunts/uncles or trusted friends to support the child. A larger support network can reduce pressure on both parents and model cooperative care[5][6].
• For Therapists and Counselors:
• Provide child-centered psychoeducation to parents. Explain how conflict harms children and how cooperation benefits them[1][10].
• Teach communication skills and joint problem-solving techniques. Role-play difficult conversations in session.
• When working with high-conflict clients, consider recommending parenting coordination or court-ordered mediation. Liaise with legal professionals if needed to ensure the child’s safety and best interests.

• Encourage resilience-building: help children express feelings and reassure them that parental disputes are not their fault. Support co-parents in maintaining children’s ties to both families.
• For Policymakers:
• Strengthen Legal Frameworks: Enforce laws that promote joint parenting responsibility (e.g. mandatory parenting plans, joint custody presumption, legal sanctions for parental alienation). The South African Children’s Act and forthcoming Family Dispute Resolution Bill serve as models[25][11].
• Expand Access to Services: Fund family mediation centers and parenting education programs, especially in underserved areas. Consider integrating co-parenting modules into antenatal and child welfare services.
• Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch community outreach (radio, clinics, schools) to destigmatize divorce and educate about healthy co-parenting. Involving community leaders (traditional chiefs, religious figures) can lend credibility.
• Support Extended Caregiving: Recognize and incorporate traditional support systems. For example, policies could formalize kinship care arrangements so that extended family have defined roles in legal parenting plans.

Across all levels, the unifying recommendation is a child-centered approach: keep the child’s developmental needs paramount in any decision. As Daniel & Madugu (2024) conclude, shifting focus “from personal grievances to a child-centered approach” is essential for co-parenting success[29].

Conclusion

Effective co-parenting in the aftermath of divorce or separation is both a family responsibility and a public health priority. This review underscores that chronic conflict among parents can significantly impair children’s emotional and physical well-being[1][2], whereas cooperative parenting fosters resilience. Co-parenting strategies that reduce conflict are multi-faceted: they involve building communication and problem-solving skills, creating clear parenting plans, involving community support, and, when needed, using legal and professional interventions. In African contexts, leveraging extended family networks and culturally congruent communication styles can enhance these strategies[5][6].

For separated parents, the message is actionable: engage in respectful dialogue, adhere to agreed parenting plans, and prioritize consistency for the children. Therapists should equip parents with conflict-management techniques and advocate for the child’s voice. Policymakers must ensure that family laws and public services back up these efforts. Future research should continue to evaluate specific interventions in diverse African settings to identify best practices, but the existing evidence is clear: reducing co-parenting conflict is essential for healthy families. By implementing the strategies outlined here, stakeholders can significantly mitigate the adverse impacts of divorce and separation, promoting better developmental and health outcomes for the next generation[30][12].

References

Daniel, R. O., & Madugu, D. L. (2024). Effective co-parenting strategies: Enhancing child well-being in separated families in Nigeria. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews, 14(2), 57–70. https://www.ijsshr.com

De Jong, M. (2022). Towards a more uniform approach to parenting coordination in South Africa. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 25(1). https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2022/v25i0a12776[31]

D’Onofrio, B. M., & Emery, R. E. (2019). Parental divorce or separation and children’s mental health. World Psychiatry, 18(1), 100–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20590[1]

Okorn, O. T., & Ojong, E. M. (2024). Co-parenting dynamics in divorced families: An examination of its impact on children’s adjustment and well-being in Central Cross River communities. Journal of Public Administration, Policy and Governance Research, 2(4), 87–99. Retrieved from https://jpapgr.com/index.php/research/article/view/146[3]

Smith-Greenaway, E., & Clark, S. (2017). Variation in the link between parental divorce and children’s health disadvantage in low and high divorce settings. SSM – Population Health, 3, 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.04.004[2]

van Jaarsveld, A. W. (2018). Factors influencing the implementation of parenting plans in South Africa (Doctoral dissertation). University of Pretoria. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2263/67932[32]

Zondi, T. V., & Kgadima, N. P. (2024). Challenging experiences of custodial mothers following their divorce: Implications for social work practice. Social Work (Stellenbosch), 60(4), 368–384. https://doi.org/10.15270/60-4-1398[33]

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